Final+Literature+Review

Career Development for Middle School Students aaaaaa Middle school students have many things to worry about including bullying, social status, and academics. By building a positive rapport with their students school counselors will be able to address these concerns. In addition, many middle school students are making academic choices that may impact their high school course choices and also their future careers. This makes it important for school counselors to develop plans that will focus on the middle school students' career development needs before they enter high school. It is normal for middle school students to be unsure about their career aspirations. A career exploration program during these years will help middle schoolers develop the necessary skills for the career decision-making process. These skills include learning about the tools and resources available to explore a variety of career options. In addition, it is crucial that parents remain involved and supportive during the career development process. Involved, supportive parents help increase their child's confidence and self-efficacy levels. There are many studies involving middle school students that demonstrate the important roles that both parents and teachers play in the career development process. Overall, middle school is an important time to explore and establish both career and educational goals.

** Needs of Middle School Students ** aaaaa According to Akos, Konold, and Niles (2004) middle school students struggle with many issues that are specifically related to their stage of development. These include physical, psychological, and social changes. Not only are these students trying to develop their personal identity through all of these changes, they are also expected to make preliminary decisions in their plan of study. These decisions will often advance or hinder future career opportunities. Career theorists suggest that certain factors that impact this specific age group are (a) curiosity, (b) fantasy, (c) identification with workers, (d) gender stereotyping, (e) race, (f) class, and (e) social valuation (Akos et al., 2004).

aaaaa Two specific goals for career counselors working with middle school students involve the development of interpersonal skills and the increase of occupational knowledge (Osborn & Reardon, 2006). Super (as cited in Akos, 2004) believed that although it is developmentally appropriate for middle school students to be unsure about career aspirations they should still be involved in the understanding of their crystallizing identity. According to Marcia (as cited in Akos et al., 2004) middle school students are not necessarily committed to certain roles and values but they should be actively engaged in the exploration process.

aaaaa Arrington (as cited in Akos, 2004) found that more parents of middle school students report a desire for their children to receive career guidance than at any other educational level. Since these students are at risk for encountering career development tasks without the proper preparation, they require interventions that are specific to their career readiness needs (Akos et al, 2004). Career readiness, also defined as career maturity, is one of the most researched topics of adolescent career development. Even if they are undecided about career decisions, middle school students can move in a positive direction by learning more about themselves in relation to their career options.

aaaaa A major theme of middle school students is the inability to make a connection between school and work. In addition, many at-risk students are likely to drop out of school because they are not able to see the value of academic success (Legum & Hoare, 2004). Researchers suggest that career development should serve as a continuous element of students’ educational experiences. Increasing students' career awareness levels in the elementary school years can help lead to career exploration at the middle school level (Legum & Hoare, 2004). In addition, service learning provides students with the opportunity to apply what they learn in the classroom to activities and tasks in the community. Studies have shown that students who participated in such activities had increased personal and social development, civic responsibility, academic learning, and career development (Stott, 2005).

** Interventions ** aaaaa According to Arrington (2000) it is important that middle school students are exposed to opportunities that will help develop their career awareness. For example, students should understand the amount of education required to become a doctor or the geographic requirements of certain careers such as a marine biologist. This knowledge will help students make realistic career choices. In addition, career guidance programs at this age should focus on career exploration, helping students understand how their interests and abilities relate to certain careers. This is important since Schaefer, Rivera, and Ophals (2010) stated that more than 80% of middle school students do not understand how their favorite school subjects can be applied to a future career. Career exploration can help middle school students understand the link between their current classes and their future career dreams (Schaefer et al., 2010), and understanding this link is important since the classes chosen in eighth grade will impact both high school and college opportunities (Arrington, 2000). Arrington suggests that career guidance programs during the middle school years should help students develop a "plan of study," which is a planned order of classes taken during the middle and high school years. In addition, middle school students should begin to understand the post-secondary educational opportunities that are available.

aaaaa Successful career exploration activities for middle school students include creating a career portfolio, job shadowing, mentoring, and assessments such as interest inventories (Arrington, 2000). Another opportunity to explore careers is provided when students complete a career genogram (Gibson, 2005). The genogram can help students understand their interests, identify a variety of occupations, and explore the education required for specific careers. In addition to these activities, career counselors should provide middle school students and their parents with information about financial aid opportunities for post-secondary education. Since these students will be making decisions about high school classes, college classes, and their eventual career, Arrington states that middle school career counseling programs should help students learn decision-making skills. In addition, to help encourage future success, middle school students need to develop their time management and study skills (Arrington, 2000).

** Self-Efficacy ** aaaaa According to Turner and Lapan (2002) middle school students need to develop competency in career planning and exploration and gain confidence in career development tasks. For example, students who are informed about different career options and are exposed to work environments are more likely to gain confidence in their skills and abilities. This will increase their level of self-efficacy and these students tend to become more interested in different career options and their future. When students are exposed to a “real” workplace, they tend to become more interested and involved in their own school work. Gibbons and Borders (2010) believe that most students make educational decisions between the eighth and tenth grade. This makes middle school an important time in the career development process. It is also important that the parents of middle school students are supportive regarding career and college planning. Supportive parents help increase students' career decision-making self-efficacy levels. Students that come from low-income families with positive peer and sibling support demonstrate higher vocational and education self-efficacy. The more educated children are about career decision-making, the more involved and confident they become in their skills and abilities.

aaaaa Legum and Hoare conducted a study of sixth and seventh grade students who were at risk of failing their classes. The students were split into two groups, experimental and control group. The experimental group completed a career exploration inventory. After the children picked three different careers that they were interested in, they learned how to research those jobs. This included searching for information on the education and training necessary for specific jobs. The children in the experimental group were also taught different skills such as how to complete a job application and interview techniques. Legum and Hoare found that the middle school students in the experimental group showed an increase in achievement and motivation levels when compared to the control group. In addition, these children were more well-rounded and did not fear the future as much as children in the control group.

aaaaa A major theme of self-efficacy is that individuals involved with students such as parents, peers, and teachers play a large role in the career development process. Throughout middle school it is important that parents and teachers support students. When given this support children gain the confidence and motivation necessary to develop appropriate career decision-making skills. These skills also help children recognize how their current and future classes, including college, are relevant to their future career goals.

**Theories and Research** aaaaa Much research available on middle school career development is geared towards helping at-risk youth to be successful choosing careers that require higher skill levels and pay a sustainable wage. Additionally, there are numerous research studies designed to find out why females and members of some minority ethnic groups (Hispanics and African Americans) tend not to choose STEM careers, which involve science, technology, engineering, and math.

aaaaa One relevant study, called the Career Horizons Program, was conducted for a week over the summer at a mid-western university in the 1990s. This program helped 57 students labeled by their school counselors as being at-risk for choosing an unsuitable "fantasy" career or limiting themselves to low skill and low wage jobs. The sample included incoming 7th graders and was fairly representative of all major races; however, it contained only 9% Hispanics and many more females than males. The median family income for participants was $20,026 per year. Students lived in dorms on campus for the week and participated in a wide variety of exciting classroom activities coordinated through the university's Psychology Department. Students completed the Self-Directed Search Career Explorer to determine their Holland Codes and then applied this knowledge to potential career options. They also learned decision-making, study skills, teambuilding, and goal setting. Additionally, participants discussed how teen pregnancy and drug abuse can interfere with their goals. To change students' negative perceptions of math and science, several scientists from diverse backgrounds (including women) conducted hands-on experiments with the youth. An awards banquet was held at the end of the week and parents were invited (O'Brien, Dukstein, Jackson, Tomlinson, & Kamatuka, 1999).

aaaaa At the conclusion of the summer camp students were asked to complete a survey to determine their career development self-efficacy. The results were that students had more confidence in their ability to plan for and explore careers and did a better job matching careers to interests. Students were more likely to identify career possibilities they may not have previously considered. Several recommendations were made at the conclusion of this program, which included holding interventions year round, having students volunteer, conducting individual student counseling sessions, and increasing parental involvement (O'Brien et al., 1999).

aaaaa A second study looks at middle school girls in southeastern Pennsylvania in the mid-1990s who show academic promise and interest in math and science careers. The purpose of the study was to see if girls' views towards math and science careers changed at all between 7th grade and 12th grade. Initially 391 7th grade females participated in career days for math and science at a nearby college. The career days were led by female scientists and included exciting hands-on experiments, as well as a panel discussion where female role models presented career information (VanLeuvan, 2004).

aaaaa The 7th grade participants completed a survey before the career days and again when they were in the 12th grade to ascertain their interest in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) careers. Survey results showed that 7th grade females were more likely to want to pursue a Doctoral Degree than the senior girls. A second discovery was that 12th grade females were much less likely than 7th grade females to want to pursue careers in math or sciences, such as chemistry or physics. Most girls at the senior high level showed higher interest in health careers and biology. Interestingly, there was a slight increase in senior girls who were interested in technology careers. Senior girls often stated that work in the "harder" sciences and math involved long hours, little enjoyment, and little contact with people. One issue with the study was that the number of 12th grade respondents was significantly lower than the initial number of 7th grade respondents. There were some students in this study who ended up pursuing non-STEM careers; however, a substantial number of participants did end up choosing science careers, but most were in the health field (VanLeuvan, 2004).

aaaaa What implications for middle school youth career development can be gained from these two studies? Firstly, one common theme is that activities for middle school youth must be exciting and involve hands-on activities. Secondly, students must understand the connection between what they are studying in school and how it applies to careers. Thirdly, students must be taught how to make good decisions and set appropriate goals. For at-risk students and female students, there must be a collaborative effort between schools, colleges, community agencies, and parental support to encourage students to aim higher in their career goals. All students must know about their own abilities, skills, and interests and how these apply to careers. Students should be taught to consider all careers without regard to gender stereotypes. Furthermore, counselors should encourage students and give them the tools needed to research careers they may not have previously considered. Additionally, for at-risk youth other services should be provided such as individual counseling, encouragement, and mentoring. It is critically important that role models in professional fields be from diverse cultural backgrounds and include females, particularly in science, math, and technology careers.

**Conclusion** aaaaa Middle school is a crucial developmental time for career exploration and decision-making. Longitudinal studies have shown that the choices made by students in middle school have a strong impact on their educational and career development for decades (Trusty, Spenser, & JoLynn, 2005). According to Erikson (as cited in Akos et al., 2004) middle school students begin cognitive and moral processing and engage in tasks related to identity achievement and role confusion. By beginning the process of career exploration during these middle school years, students develop career maturity and gain self confidence. Career counseling can begin in the latter years of elementary school to increase students' awareness levels and begin to prepare the students for further exploration and decision making at the middle school level. It also helps middle school students to develop a plan of study based upon career interests and enables them to have the opportunity to explore a variety of options at an early age. As counselors, career development should serve as an ongoing component of students' educational experiences. By providing various opportunities such as mentoring programs, job shadowing, and career education workshops counselors help students prepare to make decisions that can have a significant impact on their future lives.

**References** Akos, P., Konold, T., & Niles, S. G. (2004). A career readiness typology and typal membership in middle school. //The Career Development Quarterly, 53,// 53-66.

Arrington, K. (2000). Middle grades career planning programs. //Journal of Career Development//, //27//(2), 103-109.

Gibbons, M. M. & Borders, L. D. (2010). A measure of college-going self efficacy for middle school students. //Professional School Counseling//, //13//(4), 234-243.

Gibson, D. M. (2005). The use of genograms in career counseling with elementary, middle, and high school students. //The Career Development Quarterly//, //55//, aaaaa 353-362.

Legum, H. L. & Hoare, C. H. (2004). Impact of a career intervention on at-risk middle school students' career maturity levels, academic achievement, and aaaaa self-esteem. //Professional School Counseling, 8// (2), 148-155.

O'Brien, K. M., Dukstein, R. D., Jackson, S. L., Tomlinson, M. J., & Kamatuka, N. A. (1999). Broadening career horizons for students in at-risk environments. //The aaaaa Career Development Quarterly, 47//, 215-229.

Osborn, D. S. & Reardon, R. C. (2006). Using the self-directed search: Career explorer with high-risk middle school students. //The Career Development Quarterly, aaaaa 54, 269-273.//

Schaefer, M. B., Rivera, L. M., & Ophals, E. (2010). Creating a collaborative career development program for middle grades students. //Middle School Journal//, //42//(2), aaaaa 30-38.

=
Stott, K. A. (2005). Using service learning to achieve middle school comprehensive guidance program goals. //Professional School Counseling, 9// (2), 156-159. ======

=
Trusty, J., Spenser, N. & Camey, J. V. (2005). Education-career planning and middle school counselors. //Professional School Counseling, 9// (2), 136-143. ======

Turner, S. & Lapan T.R. (2002). Career self-efficacy and perceptions of parent support in adolescent career development. //The Career Development Quarterly, 15//, aaaaa 44-55.
VanLeuvan, P. (2004). Young women's science/mathematics career goals from seventh grade to high school graduation. //Journal of Educational Research, 97// (5), aaaaa 248-267.